The impostor phenomenon in post-secondary students: A review of the literature
Abstract
The impostor phenomenon (IP) is characterised by a belief that one is not actually intelligent or accomplished, despite objective evidence of success, but rather has fooled others and is therefore vulnerable to discovery as a fraud. Impostor feelings are widespread in the post-secondary population and may be disproportionately experienced by groups already marginalised within academia (e.g., women, racialised students). The IP may be associated with significant mental health issues and changes long-term education and career plans; as such, it is imperative that administrators take steps to address impostorism on university and college campuses. The purpose of this review was to summarise factors of the IP from existing research on the experiences and background characteristics of undergraduate, graduate and professional students (i.e., medicine, law). Findings on the subject of IP and gender as well as IP and ethnicity were inconsistent. Most studies found that IP was negatively related to self-esteem and various dimensions of mental health. The relationship of IP to grade point average was inconsistent but several studies showed a negative association between IP and measures of academic performance. These findings suggest there is a critical need to bring awareness to and address experiences of the IP in the academic community; implications for campus mental health professionals are explored. Limitations of existing research are addressed and directions for future research are discussed.
Context and implications
Rationale for this study
To offer a summary of findings related to experiences of the IP among students in higher education.
Why the new findings matter
IP is negatively associated with multiple mental health concerns, self-esteem, and measures of academic performance; therefore, interventions are needed to better support students in their academic pursuits.
Implications for higher education personnel (e.g., professors, administrators)
Implications for mental health professionals and students are discussed. Recommendations for intervention include raising awareness and normalising feelings of IP through workshops and orientations, and resource development with a particular focus on practical strategies to support students in coping with feelings of IP. Earlier intervention to manage IP is needed to curb associated mental health issues and deleterious changes to long-term education and career plans.
The term ‘impostor phenomenon’ (IP) was first introduced by Clance and Imes based on their clinical work with well-educated women including students, faculty members and professionals (1978).1 The defining features of this phenomenon include: (1) the belief that, despite objective evidence of success, one is not actually intelligent but rather has fooled others; (2) the belief that one's success may be due to errors in evaluation or external factors (e.g., luck, knowing the right people); and (3) a fear of being discovered, judged and outed as a fraud. Other characteristics include unrealistic evaluation of one's own competence; negation of positive feedback and feelings of guilt about success; difficulty internalising strengths and accepting praise or compliments; disappointment in one's own accomplishments; and high levels of anxiety and a preference for low-level or unchallenging positions (Clance & Imes, 1978; Clance & OToole, 1987; Harvey & Katz, 1985; Holmes et al., 1993).
This phenomenon is strongly relevant to post-secondary academic populations given strong associations between the IP and overall mental health and well-being (e.g., Wang et al., 2019), widespread levels of impostor feelings among students (e.g., Bravata et al., 2019), and the long-term impact of impostor feelings on decisions related to education and career plans (e.g., Neureiter & Traut-Mattausch, 2016, 2017). Post-secondary students may represent a uniquely vulnerable group to imposter feelings; therefore, the goal of this manuscript is to review the research on IP in undergraduate, graduate and professional students.
Previous reviews
To our knowledge, no reviews have been conducted focusing specifically on manifestations of the IP in post-secondary students. Bravata et al. (2019) recently published a review of 62 studies on the prevalence, predictors and treatment of IP across a diverse cross-section of groups. They found that both age and gender effects were inconsistently observed across investigations, and that experiences of the IP were frequently associated with depression, anxiety and low self-esteem. However, only 34 of the studies included in their review focused on students and the authors did not distinguish between elementary, high school and university students; it is unclear to what degree these pooled findings would be generalisable to post-secondary students. It would appear also that many studies on the IP in university/college students did not meet their inclusion criteria.
Gottlieb and colleagues reviewed 18 studies of the IP in physicians and physicians-in-training (Gottlieb et al., 2020) and concluded that gender, low self-esteem and institutional culture were related to higher levels of IP, and that higher IP was consistently associated with greater rates of burnout. Again, it is unclear to what degree pooled findings of professionals and medical students would apply to all post-secondary students; it may also be the case that unique pressures associated with working in or studying medicine may affect manifestations of the IP in that population of participants.
Rationale for this review
Mental health issues among undergraduate students are pervasive (ACHA, 2019), prevalence rates having increased significantly over the last two decades (Oswalt et al., 2020) and been further exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic (Wang et al., 2020). Mental health issues in post-secondary students may cause severe role impairment in various domains (e.g., work, home, personal relationships; Alonso et al., 2018) and result in lower grades, delayed graduation or even dropout (Richardson et al., 2012; Shankar & Park, 2016). Specific student groups may be at greater risk for adverse mental health including students who identify as racial or ethnic minorities (Olaniyan, 2021), graduate students (Evans et al., 2018) and women (Eisenberg et al., 2013). Feeling like an impostor may be a critical contributor to mental health issues in the post-secondary population. Beyond the experience of subjective distress reported by those with high impostor feelings (Clance & Imes, 1978), it is also strongly linked to mental health issues, well-being, stress and burnout in post-secondary students (Eisenberg et al., 2016).
The IP appears to be widespread in the post-secondary student population. Up to 82% of participants sampled in past studies report some level of impostor feelings (Bravata et al., 2019), suggesting that feeling as though one does not belong may be the norm rather than the exception on college and university campuses. Some sources point to high or higher levels of the IP in women (Badawy et al., 2018), students of minoritised identities (Cokley et al., 2013) and first-generation students (Craddock et al., 2011). Impostor feelings may increase marginalisation of these groups in academic spaces and contribute to their disproportionate likelihood of leaving their academic programmes.
The post-secondary years represent a crucial period of decision-making with regards to further studies and career plans. Impostor feelings may lead students to not apply to desired programmes, to change field of study or to leave academia entirely (Chakraverty, 2019). Post-secondary students with strong impostor feelings may become employees who avoid applying to jobs, seeking promotions or taking on important projects, which may ultimately affect their income and socioeconomic status for decades following graduation. It is therefore critical that IP experiences be identified, understood and addressed in this population.
Research questions
- Do levels of impostor feelings differ across various demographic groups (e.g., gender, ethnicity, age)?
- What are the correlates of the IP in post-secondary students (e.g., mental health, academic functioning, etc.)?
- Do the correlates of the IP vary across post-secondary programmes (i.e., undergraduate vs. graduate vs. professional schools)?
METHODOLOGY
Search process
Searches were conducted in PsycINFO, Web of Science, Scopus, ERIC and Embase (Bramer et al., 2017) using the search terms ‘impostor/imposter phenomenon’, ‘impostor/imposter syndrome’ and ‘impostorism/imposterism’. The decision was made not to use additional search terms (e.g., ‘academic’ or ‘post-secondary’) in order to be as inclusive as possible in identifying relevant studies; many studies exclusively sampled students but made no reference to this in the title or abstract of the published article. No publication date restrictions were applied. Articles selected for inclusion in this review met the following criteria: (1) English-language, (2) empirical peer-reviewed journal articles, (3) sample population included students and presented analyses specific to this group and (4) focus was on the IP (e.g., correlates, contributors, consequences). Exclusion criteria included: (1) non-academic samples (e.g., samples of professionals), (2) studies of professors or other staff in academic settings, (3) intervention studies (i.e., studies designed to assess the impact on IP scores of a certain treatment), (4) scale validation studies (e.g., translations of the IP scale into other languages), (5) qualitative studies and (6) studies with insufficient details regarding sample or methodology (e.g., a study that included both students and members of the general population where results were not clearly separated by population).
Data extraction
Searches were conducted by the first author and relevant records were reviewed by the second author. In cases where the relevance of a record was unclear to both authors after initial review, the record was included for subsequent review and rule-out. A total of 426 records were identified for initial review after preliminary searches (Torraco, 2016; see Figure 1). Following review of titles and abstracts, 72 were selected for further review and 57 were retained after reading and analysis. Records were ruled out based on the exclusion criteria listed above. An additional three records were identified as potentially relevant from reference lists and retained after reading. A total of 60 articles were included in the review.
The two authors independently extracted the following data: publication details, location of data collection, purpose of investigation, population sample, recruitment strategy, sample inclusion/exclusion criteria, sample size and demographic characteristics, assessment methods, measures used for independent and dependent variables and main findings. Each author independently read and extracted data from half of the initial sample of articles; the data extracted was then reviewed for accuracy by the other author. Cases of disagreement were resolved through repeated rereadings of the article in question.
RESULTS
Several major domains of IP research were identified based on the review of relevant articles, including demographic factors, overall distress and mental health issues, self-concept and self-evaluations, personality attributes, academic factors, career concerns and family. Categories were generated based on conceptual overlap of variables investigated. See Table 1 for summaries.2
| Citation | Sample, gender, and race ethnicity | IP measure used; mean and SD | Main findings |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Austin et al., 2009 United States |
97 undergraduate students (27 men, 70 women) All Black/African American |
Clance IP Scale 51.44 (SD = 11.87) |
IP not associated with gender or generational status IP positively mediated the relationship between survivor guilt and depressive symptoms (partially) |
|
Badawy et al., 2018 United States |
Study 1: 268 undergraduate students (58.5% men, 41.5% women) Study 1: 57.8% White, 20.6% Asian, 6.4% African American, 3.5% Hispanic, and 11.7% Other Study 2: 250 undergraduate students (55.5% men, 44.5% women) Study 2: 41.6% White, 45.3% Asian, 4.7% African American, 1.8% Hispanic, and 6.6% Other |
Clance IP Scale Study 1: 4.23 (SD = 0.95) Study 2: 4.10 (SD = 0.92) |
IP higher in women, study 1 and 2 IP associated with state anxiety (+), study 1 and 2 IP not associated with effort or performance on experimental tasks, study 1 and 2 Study 1: Negative feedback condition—higher state anxiety among male IPs, and higher effort among female IPs. Positive feedback condition—no difference between male and female IPs and no association between IP and state anxiety, effort or performance. Study 2: High accountability condition—IP associated with higher anxiety, reduced effort and lower performance for male IPs only, female IPs were unaffected. Low accountability condition—higher state anxiety among female IPs. |
|
Bernard et al., 2002 United States |
190 undergraduate students (79 men, 111 women) 63% European Americans, 20% African Americans, 5% Asian or Asian Americans, 4% Latinos, 4% of mixed parentage, 4% ‘Other’ |
Clance IP Scale 52.6 (SD = 12.7) Perceived Fraudulence Scale 179.0 (SD = 33.0) |
IP not associated with gender IP not associated with GPA or parental graduation from college IP associated with Neuroticism (+) and Conscientiousness (−) |
|
Bernard et al., 2018 United States |
157 undergraduate students (50 men, 107 women) All African American |
Clance IP scale Time 1 = 2.71 (SD = 0.76) Time 2 = 2.73 (SD = 0.86) |
IP higher in women IP at Time 2 associated with racial discrimination at Time 1 (+) IP levels moderated by racial identity IP at Time 1 associated with IP at Time 2 IP associated with racial discrimination (+) for most racial identity groups |
|
Bernard et al., 2017 United States |
157 undergraduate students (50 men, 107 women) All African American |
Clance IP Scale Time 1 = 2.71 (SD = 0.80) Time 2: 2.74 (SD = 0.85) |
IP did not predict increases in negative mental health outcomes in the full sample IP associated with worse mental health, moderated by racial discrimination frequency, bother (i.e., distress resulting from racial discrimination) and gender: Women with higher levels of discrimination frequency and women with lower levels of distress from racial discrimination were most vulnerable to negative mental health impacts from IP. |
|
Blondeau & Awad, 2018 United States |
121 undergraduate students (52.9% men, 47.1% women) 38.0% European American, 33.1% Asian American, 19.8% Hispanic. |
Clance IP Scale Men: 61.89 (SD = 15.35) Women: 64.32 (SD = 12.36) |
IP not associated with gender. IP associated with GPA for men (−) but not women IP associated with future intentions for continuing in a STEM field for men (−) but not women |
|
Brauer & Proyer, 2017 Germany |
244 undergraduate and graduate students (37% men, 63% women) Ethnicity not reported |
German version of Clance IP Scale 56.94 (SD = 12.65) |
IP higher in women. IP not associated with age or global playfulness IP associated with lighthearted playfulness (−) and whimsical playfulness (+) |
|
Brauer & Proyer, 2019 |
315 undergraduate and graduate students (45.1% men, 54.9% women) Ethnicity not reported |
German version of Clance IP Scale 56.65 (SD = 12.09) |
IP higher in women. IP not associated with age IP associated with fear of being laughed at (+) |
|
Castro et al., 2010 United States |
213 graduate students (32 men, 180 women) 62% Caucasian, 34% African-American, 2% Asian 2% Other minority groups |
Clance IP Scale 55.19 (SD = 14.82) |
IP not associated with gender IP higher in Caucasians than African Americans IP associated with parentification (+) |
|
Christensen et al., 2016 New Zealand, Australia, UK |
223 nursing students Gender and ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale Median—57 |
IP associated with preparedness for practice (+) |
|
Cohen & McConnell, 2019 United States |
1476 graduate students (36.1% men, 63.9% women) 81.8% White |
Author created questions |
IP higher for women, students in the arts and humanities, in doctoral research programmes IP lower for older students, students in public health and professional degrees, international students, students without mental health issues prior to graduate school, students who have above average social support IP associated with perceived funding competition (+), perceived isolation from students (+), and perceived isolation from faculty (+) IP not associated with race, marital status, generational status, prior experience in graduate school, programme tenure, having a mentor, level of study |
|
Cokley et al., 2015 United States |
491 undergraduate students (146 men, 345 women) Women: 19.4% African American, 22.3% European American, 21.2% Asian American, 25.2% Latina American, 7.5% Biracial, 4.3% Other Men: 26.7% African American, 29.5% European American, 19.9% Asian American Men, 14.4% Latino American, 8.9% Biracial, 0.7% Other |
Clance IP Scale Men = 2.94 (SD = 0.69) Women = 3.05 (SD = 0.74) |
IP not associated with gender IP associated with gender stigma consciousness (+), GPA for women (+) but not men, and academic self-concept (−) IP indirectly associated to GPA through academic self-concept for men IP not associated with academic disengagement. |
|
Cokley et al., 2017 United States |
322 students, level of study not reported (89 men, 227 women) 34% African Americans, 34% Latino/a Americans, 32% Asian Americans |
Clance IP Scale African Americans: 2.99 (SD = 0.77) Asian Americans: 3.19 (SD = 0.64) Latina/o Americans: 3.00 (SD = 0.76) |
IP not associated with ethnicity IP associated with depression (+) and anxiety (+). African American students: Perceived discrimination associated with anxiety (partially mediated by IP) and depression (fully mediated by IP); relationships stronger at high levels of IP. Asian American students: Perceived discrimination associated with anxiety and depression (both fully mediated by IP). Latino/a American students: Perceived discrimination associated with anxiety (partially mediated by IP); relationship stronger at low levels of IP. Perceived discrimination associated with depression only at low levels of IP. Impact of IP stronger on depression for African Americans. Perceived discrimination stronger influence on IP among Latino/a Americans |
|
Cokley et al., 2018 United States |
468 undergraduate students (184 men, 262 women, 17 did not respond, 2 not listed, 3 transgender, gender queer, or gender non-conforming) 14% African Americans, 28% Whites/European Americans, 22% Latino/a Americans, 28% Asian Americans, 1.9% Multiracial, 1.5% Biracial, 1.1% Middle Easterners, 0.2% Native American, and 3.4% Unknown |
Clance IP Scale 55.59 (SD = 13.03) |
IP higher in women IP not associated with ethnicity IP associated with maladaptive perfectionism (+), partially mediated by self-esteem IP non-significantly associated with adaptive perfectionism (−), partially mediated by self-esteem |
|
Cokley et al., 2013 United States |
240 undergraduate students (90 men, 148 women, 2 unknown) 111 Asian Americans, 76 Latino/a Americans, 50 African Americans, 3 biracial. |
Clance IP Scale African American: 2.56 (SD = 0.71) Asian: 3.09 (SD = 0.65) Latino/a American: 2.80 (SD = 0.72) |
IP not associated with gender IP higher in Asian Americans than African Americans and Latino/a Americans No difference in IP between African Americans and Latino/a Americans IP associated with minority status stress (+), psychological distress (+), psychological well-being (−) |
|
Cowie et al., 2018 Canada |
269 graduate students (128 men, 141 women) 59.5% Caucasian, 15.2% Asian, 12.6% Other ethnicities, 12.6% Not disclosed |
Clance IP Scale Women: 57.79 (SD = 15.16) Men: 51.44 (SD = 12.81) |
IP higher in women. IP associated with socially prescribed perfectionism (+), other-oriented perfectionism (−) and non-display of imperfection (+) |
|
Cowman & Ferrari, 2002 United States |
436 undergraduate students (139 men, 294 women, 3 unspecified) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP scale 59.25 (SD = 13.86) |
IP not associated with gender IP associated with social desirability (−) IP predicted by self-handicapping (+) and shame-proneness (+) |
|
Cozzarelli & Major, 1990 United States |
137 undergraduate students (52 men, 85 women) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP scale (SD not reported) Impostors: 65.71 Non-impostors: 48.17 |
High IP associated with defensive pessimism (+), trait self-esteem (−), and state self-esteem (−) at Time 1. High IP and low IP groups did not differ by gender or GPA Pre-exam, imposters were more anxious and expected to perform worse. No differences in grades earned on exam. Post-exam, imposters were more likely to make attributions to bad luck and low ability regardless of outcome. Post-exam, imposters were in a worse mood and had lower state self-esteem after failure. No difference in state self-esteem after success. |
|
Cusack et al., 2013 United States |
506 undergraduate and graduate students (105 men, 401 women) 64.6% White American, 17.2% African American, 3.4% Hispanic, 6.9% Asian American, 7.7% Multiracial, 0.2% American Indian |
Clance IP Scale 58.68 (SD = 13.87) |
IP higher in women IP associated with mental health (−), perfectionism (+), test anxiety (+) IP not associated with self-esteem IP predicted by gender, mental health (−), perfectionism (+), and test anxiety (+) |
|
Dudău, 2014 Romania |
129 undergraduate students (17 men, 110 women, 2 missing) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale 52.37 (SD = 14.06) |
IP associated with total perfectionism (+) and self-evaluative perfectionism (+) IP predicted by the need for approval (+), organisation (−) and rumination dimensions of perfectionism (+) |
| Ewing et al., 1996 |
103 graduate or professional students (31 men, 72 women) All African American |
Harvey IP Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP predicted by Afrocentric values (−) IP predicted by academic self-concept (−) and immersion-emersion racial identity attitudes (−) |
|
Ferrari & Thompson, 2006 Study 1: United States Study 2: Australia |
Study 1: 165 undergraduate students (52 men, 113 women) Study 1: 56% Caucasian Study 2: 72 undergraduate students (all women) Study 2: 95% Caucasian |
Study 1: Clance IP Scale 55.75 (SD = 13.97) Study 2: Clance IP Scale 62.68 (SD = 12.54) |
Study 1: IP not associated with gender IP associated with impression management (+), perfectionistic cognitions (+), perfectionistic self-promotion (+), avoiding behavioural display of imperfection (+), self-deception tendencies (−) IP predicted by perfectionistic cognitions (+) and the need to avoid appearing imperfect (+) Study 2: No difference between participants with high or low impostor tendencies following success or face-saving failure More handicap claims for those high in imposter fears under the humiliating failure condition |
|
Ferrari, 2005 United States |
124 undergraduate students (32 men, 92 women) 47% European-American, 27.3% Latino/Latina, 12.1% African-American, 13.7% another racial/ethnic identity |
Clance IP Scale 54.24 (SD = 13.27) |
IP not associated with gender or social desirability scores Non-imposters more likely to cheat in examinations and plagiarise in written assignments |
|
Fraenza, 2016 United States |
220 graduate students (no sex breakdown) 76% White, 16.4% Black |
Clance IP Scale 54.17 (SD = 16.85), online students 65.68 (SD = 15.59), traditional students |
IP scores higher in traditional graduate students compared to online students IP predicted by perfectionism (+), anxiety (+) and programme type (−) |
|
Gibson-Beverly & Schwartz, 2008 United States |
170 graduate students (all women) 53.8% Caucasian, 39.6% African American, 3.6% Hispanic/Latino, 1.2% Asian American, 0.6% Native American, 1.2% endorsed ‘other’ |
Clance IP Scale 54.37 (SD = 13.22) |
IP not associated with GPA IP predicted by anxious attachment (+), narcissistic expectations/self-promotion entitlement (+) and self-reliance/self-assurance entitlement (−) |
|
Graham & McClain, 2019 United States |
117 undergraduate students (25 men, 92 women) Self-identified Black (82% Black, 18% Biracial) |
Clance IP Scale 2.93 (SD = 0.79) |
IP associated with belongingness (−), college adjustment (−) IP not associated with mentorship experiences or GPA |
|
Hayes & Davis, 1993 United States |
83 students, level of study not reported (24 men, 59 women) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP higher in women IP associated with interpersonal flexibility for men (−) and women (−) IP associated with Type A behaviour for men (+) and women (−) |
|
Henning et al., 1998 United States |
477 students in medicine, dentistry, nursing or pharmacy (47% men, 53% women) 85% Caucasian, 8.3% African American, 4.4% Asian |
Clance IP Scale Medicine: 54.7 (SD = 14.2) Dental: 52.0 (SD = 12.4) Nursing: 56.4 (SD = 14.8) Pharmacy: 59.4 (SD = 15) |
IP higher in women IP predicted psychological distress levels (+) |
|
Holliday et al., 2019 United States |
485 medical and dental students (37% men, 52% women) 46% White, 36% Asian, 5% Black, 13% Other, 10% Hispanic or Latino |
Clance IP Scale 65 (SD = 13) |
IP predicted by age, being female, and taking time off before medical school; gender was the only independent predictor of IP in multivariate models IP not associated with being White, being Hispanic or Latino, having a family member be a physician, being in a PhD programme, being in medicine vs. dentistry, year of study, having surgical career plans, or strong desire for leadership |
|
Hu et al., 2019 United States |
169 medical students Gender and ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP associated with feelings of shame/embarrassment (+) and inadequacy (+) |
|
Jöstl et al., 2012 Austria |
631 graduate students (242 men, 389 women) Ethnicity not reported |
German version of the Clance IP Scale 2.73 (SD = 0.74) Men: 2.57 (SD = 0.65) Women: 2.83 (SD = 0.77) |
IP higher in women and among students teaching classes IP predicted research self-efficacy (−) IP correlated with fear of failure (+), fear of success (+), and self-esteem (−). |
|
King & Cooley, 1995 United States |
127 undergraduate students (52 men, 75 women) 89.8% Caucasian, 3.1% Black, 3.1% Asian, 4.0% Other |
Clance IP Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP higher in women IP associated with family achievement orientation score for both males (+) and women (+), GPA for women (+), time spent studying for women (+) |
|
Kumar & Jagacinski, 2006 United States |
135 undergraduate students (69% men, 31% women) 86% White |
Clance IP scale Men: 2.70 (SD = 0.52) Women: 3.02 (SD = 0.79) |
IP higher for women. IP associated with test anxiety (+) and confidence in intelligence (−) For women, IP associated task goals (−), ability-approach goals (+) and endorsement of entity theory of intelligence (+) For men, IP associated with ability-avoid goals (+) |
|
Leary et al., 2000 United States |
Study 1: 238 undergraduate students (split equally between men and women) Study 2: 95 undergraduate students (48 men, 47 women) Study 3: 67 undergraduate students (gender breakdown not reported) Ethnicity not reported |
Study 1: Harvey IP Scale, Clance IP Scale, and Perceived Fraudulence Scale Studies 2 & 3: 7-item Impostorism Scale created by authors Means not reported |
Study 1: IP associated with self-appraisals (−), reflected appraisals (−), and the difference between self- and reflected appraisals (−) Study 2: IP did not differ by gender High imposters respond differently in public vs. private conditions when expectations for performance were low. In the public condition, high imposters expressed lower performance expectations, reported doing well on the test was less important, derogated the validity of the test, and expressed less satisfaction about the possibility of performing well Study 3: High IP associated with feeling less good about performing well when their scores were public rather than private whereas low IP associated with feeling better about performing well when evaluation was public rather than private IP associated with self-confidence (−) and self-esteem (−) |
|
Legassie et al., 2008 Canada |
48 medical residents (22 men, 25 women, 1 not reported) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale 61.2 (SD = 14.2) |
IP higher in women and foreign medical graduates IP not associated with residency year IP associated with residency type IP associated with dimensions of burnout (−) |
|
Li et al., 2014 United States |
506 undergraduate and graduate students (105 men, 401 women) 64.0% White, 17.2% Black, 6.9% Asian, 7.7% Biracial or Multiracial, 3.6% Other |
Clance IP Scale Men: 54.57 (SD = 9.58) Women: 59.75 (SD = 14.61) |
IP higher in women For total sample and women only: IP predicted by parental care (−) and parental overprotectiveness (+) For men only: IP not predicted by parental care or overprotectiveness For total sample and women only: IP predicted by maternal care (−) For men only: IP not predicted by maternal care/overprotectiveness, paternal care/overprotectiveness |
|
Lige et al., 2016 United States |
112 undergraduate students (25 men, 83 women, 4 missing) All African American |
Clance IP Scale 54.48 (SD = 14.74) |
IP not associated with gender IP associated with GPA (−), private regard (−), self-esteem (−) Association between private regard and IP mediated by self-esteem (fully) |
|
McClain et al., 2016 United States |
218 undergraduate and graduate students (61 men, 157 women) All Black |
Clance IP Scale 2.63 (SD = 0 0.75) |
IP not associated with gender, ethnic identity or race centrality IP associated with minority stress (+) and mental health (−) |
|
McElwee & Yurak, 2007 United States |
256 students total (65 men, 186 women) Sample A: 82 undergraduate students, 42 graduate students (104 women, 20 men) Sample B: 125 undergraduate students (81 women, 45 men) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale Mean/SD not reported Leary Impostor Scale Mean/SD not reported |
No evidence that IP associated with discrepancies between self-appraisals and reflected appraisals IP associated with self-handicapping (+) and self-enhancing strategies (−) Individuals high in IP and a negative discrepancy between self- and reflected appraisals showed lower self-esteem and more negative affect. High IP associated with positive affect (−) Individuals high in IP and with discrepancies between self- and reflected appraisals scored lower on automatic self-presentation strategies, lower on self-esteem and more negative affect compared to both individuals high in IP without discrepancy and individuals low in IP |
|
McElwee & Yurak, 2010 United States |
122 undergraduate students (32 men, 90 women) 79% European-American, 7% African-American, 7% Latino/a, 4% Asian-American and 3% ‘Other’ |
Clance IP Scale Mean/SD not reported Leary Impostor Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP associated with fear/distress (+) and guilt/shame (+) at the time of the reported event IP associated with fear/distress (+), guilt/shame (+), hostility/irritability (+), interest (+) at the time of scale completion |
|
McGregor et al., 2008 United States |
186 undergraduate students (71 men, 115 women) 90.9% Caucasian, 5.9% African American, 1.6% Asian, <1% Latino, 1.6% ‘Other’ |
Clance IP Scale 56.33 (SD = 11.59) |
IP higher in women IP associated with depression (+) |
|
Neureiter & Traut-Mattausch, 2016 Austria |
212 students, level of study not reported (30% men, 70% women) Ethnicity not reported |
German version of Clance IP Scale 2.73 (SD = 0.58) |
IP associated with fear of failure (+), fear of success (+), self-esteem (−), career planning (−), observable career striving (+), motivation to lead (−) IP predicted by fear of failure (+), fear of success (+), and self-esteem (−) IP predicted career planning (−), motivation to lead (−), observable career striving (+) IP not associated with non-observable career striving |
|
Neureiter & Traut-Mattausch, 2017 Austria |
289 undergraduate and graduate students (25% men, 75% women) Ethnicity not reported |
German version of the Clance IP Scale 2.78 (SD = 0.65) |
IP associated with core self-evaluation (i.e., neuroticism, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and internal locus of control) (−) IP associated with career planning (−), career decision-making difficulties (−), occupational self-efficacy (−), career adaptability resources (−) IP mediated the effects of core self-evaluation on career decision-making difficulties (fully) and occupational self-efficacy (partially) |
|
Oriel et al., 2004 United States |
185 medical residents (87 men, 98 women) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP more common in women (41%) than men (24%) IP associated with depressive symptoms (+), trait anxiety (+), state anxiety (+), self-esteem (−) IP not associated with year of training, residency programme, age or marital status Association between IP and gender mediated by self-esteem (fully) IP predicted by depression (+), trait anxiety (+), and self-esteem (−) |
|
Patzak et al., 2017 Austria |
459 undergraduate students (31% men, 69% women) Ethnicity not reported |
German version of the Clance IP Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP higher in women, feminine and undifferentiated students IP associated with self-kindness (−) and mindfulness (−), self-judgement (+), over-identification (+), isolation (+), self-compassion (−) IP association with gender role orientation, mediated by self-compassion (partially) Complementary mediation (masculinity) and competitive mediation (femininity) between gender-role orientation and the IP |
|
Peteet, Brown, et al., 2015 United States |
112 undergraduate students (26% men, 74% women) All identified as Black/African American |
Clance IP Scale 54.48 (SD = 14.74) |
IP predicted psychological distress (+) and self-esteem (−) |
|
Peteet, Montgomery, et al., 2015 United States |
161 undergraduate students (42 men, 117 women) 73% African America/Black, 27% Hispanic |
Clance IP Scale 50.27 (SD = 14.78) |
IP associated with generational status (−), autonomy (−), self-acceptance (+), environmental mastery (−), positive relationships with others (+), purpose in life (−), affirmation/belonging (−) IP predicted by environmental mastery (−) and affirmation/belonging (−) |
|
Regan et al., 2019 United States |
121 medical residents (39% men, 60% women) 71% White/Caucasian, 15% Asian, 7% Black/African American, 7% Other |
Clance IP Scale 63.13 (SD = 17.3) |
IP associated with all three subscales of burnout: emotional exhaustion (+), depersonalisation (+), personal accomplishment (−) |
|
Ross & Krukowski, 2003 United States |
177 undergraduate students (31% men, 69% women) 95% Caucasian, 4% African American, 1% Other racial groups |
Harvey IP Scale 38.4 (SD = 9.4) |
IP associated with paranoid (+), schizotypal (+), borderline (+), histrionic (−), avoidant (+), dependent (+), obsessive–compulsive (+), self-defeating (+) personality disorder scales (DSM-III) IP associated with negative temperament (+), mistrust (+), self-harm—low self-esteem (+), self-harm—suicidal potential (+), dependency (+), workaholism (+), positive temperament (−), exhibitionism (−), entitlement (−), and detachment (+) trait-temperament scales IP predicted by avoidant (+), dependent (+) and schizotypal (+) personality disorder scales IP predicted by detachment (+), dependency (+), low self-esteem (+), entitlement (−), workaholism (+) and mistrust (+) trait-temperament scales |
|
Ross et al., 2001 United States |
129 undergraduate students (28.7% men and 71.3% women) 90.0% White, 7.1% Black, 2.8% Other |
Harvey IP Scale 50.28 (SD = 9.28) |
IP associated with fear of failure (+), self-handicapping (+), hypercompetition (+), cooperation (−), personal development competition (−), neuroticism (+), extraversion (−), conscientiousness (−) IP not associated with agreeableness IP predicted by self-handicapping (+), fear of failure (+) and neuroticism (+); self-handicapping and fear of failure non-significant when neuroticism included in models |
|
Schubert & Bowker, 2017 Canada |
Phase 1: 304 undergraduate students (25% men, 75% women) Phase 2: 38 undergraduate students (31% men, 69% women) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale 62.45 (SD = 13.10) |
IP associated with self-esteem (−), self-rated self-esteem instability (+), statistical self-esteem instability (+) IP predicted by interaction between self-esteem and self-rated instability Impact of self-esteem instability on IP moderated by overall level of self-esteem: at low levels of self-esteem, stability of self-esteem had minimal effect on IP scores. At high levels of self-esteem, lower stability of self-esteem predicted higher IP scores |
|
September et al., 2001 Canada |
379 undergraduate students (116 men, 258 women, 5 unknown) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP not associated with gender or GPA IP associated with six subscales of well-being (−) High IP participants scored lower for well-being resulting from self-acceptance and environmental mastery Low IP groups report higher scores for well-being Undifferentiated and expressive groups both scored higher on the IP scale than the androgynous and instrumental groups |
|
Sharma, 2018 India |
76 graduate students Gender and ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP associated with career satisfaction (−) and perceived career success (−) IP associated with career satisfaction and perceived career success (both partially mediated by career optimism) |
|
Sightler & Wilson, 2001 United States |
63 undergraduate students Gender and ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale 58.32 (10.41) |
IP associated with external local control (+) IP not associated with cumulative GPA, years of managerial experience, stress predispositions, work impact on family life or tolerance for ambiguity IP predicted by greater impact of work on family life and external locus of control |
|
Sonnak & Towell, 2001 England |
74 undergraduate students Gender and ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale 70.59 (SD = 6.16) |
IP not associated with age, pre-university achievement, gender, living arrangements, type of course or academic year IP associated with poorer mental health IP associated with parental protectiveness (+), parental care (−), self-esteem (−), mental health (−) IP predicted by parental overprotectiveness (+) and self-esteem (−) With self-esteem excluded, IP predicted by parental care (−), mental health (−), type of school (+) and paternal protectiveness (+) |
|
Tao & Gloria, 2019 United States |
224 graduate students (all women) 79.7% White non-Hispanic, 8.6% Asian/Asian American, 5.9% Hispanic/non-White, 3.2% Biracial/Multiracial, 0.9% African American/Black, 0.5% American Indian/Alaska Native women, 0.9% Unknown |
Clance IP Scale 3.72 (SD = 0.72) |
IP not associated with ethnicity, field of study IP associated with proportion of women in field of study (−) Association between IP and persistence attitudes mediated by self-efficacy and perceptions of research environment (fully), moderated by number of women in the field: as the perceived number of women in the field increased, the relationship between IP and persistence attitudes strengthened |
|
Thompson et al., 1998 Australia |
164 undergraduate students (38 men, 126 women) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale Impostors: 73.05 (SD = 8.28) Non-impostors: 53.08 (SD = 6.68) |
No differences between impostor groups based on gender or GPA Impostors reported lower academic self-esteem and lower global self-esteem IP associated with age (−) Imagined failure condition: Impostors felt more humiliation and greater guilt. Impostors more likely to attribute poor performance to internal factors. In both success and failure conditions: Impostors had higher levels of guilt and humiliation, felt less satisfaction, had lower self-esteem, higher levels of anxiety, lower self-estimates of ability, lower expectations of future success, higher standards for self-evaluation, greater tendency for self-criticism, and tended to over-generalise from failure to their overall self-concept. |
|
Thompson et al., 2000 Australia |
60 undergraduate students (11 men, 49 women) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale Impostors (M = 74, SD = 6.0) Non-impostors (M = 46, SD = 6.0). |
Impostor group showed more fear of negative evaluation and concern over mistakes, lower global self-esteem, pre-test anxiety High frequency of mistake condition: Imposters felt less in control of their performance, more anxious, less positive mood than non-impostors Overall: Impostors reported more dissatisfaction with their overall performance, less confidence in their ability to perform well, lower estimates of success, more negative mood, higher post-test anxiety |
|
Villwock et al., 2016 United States |
138 medical students (61 men, 77 women) 1.46% Black, 84.67% White, 2.92% Latina/o, 11.68% Asian, 0.73% Native American, 2.92% Multiracial |
Young Impostor Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP higher in women IP higher in fourth-year students IP associated with multiple components of burnout (i.e., exhaustion, cynicism, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalisation) |
|
Wang et al., 2019 Russia |
169 students (50 men, 119 women) Ethnicity not reported |
Clance IP Scale 58.50 (SD = 12.16) |
IP not associated with gender IP associated with perfectionistic discrepancy (+), depressive mood (+), anxiety (+), perfectionistic standards (−) Association between perfectionistic discrepancy and depressive mood was partly mediated by IP scores Association between perfectionistic discrepancy and anxiety was fully mediated by IP scores |
|
Yamini & Mandanizadeh, 2011 Iran |
94 undergraduate students (26 men, 68 women) Ethnicity not reported |
Harvey IP Scale Mean/SD not reported |
IP not associated with gender IP associated with self-efficacy (+) |
Demographic factors
A number of researchers in this area have explored the connections between demographic group membership and levels of IP. The findings reported in this section reflect those demographic factors that were investigated in more than one study.
Gender
Within undergraduate populations, studies examining the connection between gender and the IP have produced mixed results. Many studies have found that female participants score higher on measures of IP compared to male participants (Badawy et al., 2018; Bernard et al., 2018; Brauer & Proyer, 2017; Cokley et al., 2015, 2018; Hayes & Davis, 1993; King & Cooley, 1995; Kumar & Jagacinski, 2006; Legassie et al., 2008; McGregor et al., 2008; Patzak et al., 2017). However, many other studies have found no relationship between gender and scores on IP scales (Austin et al., 2009; Bernard et al., 2002; Blondeau & Awad, 2018; Cokley et al., 2013, 2015; Cowman & Ferrari, 2002; Cozzarelli & Major, 1990; Ferrari, 2005; Ferrari & Thompson, 2006; Lige et al., 2016; September et al., 2001; Sonnak & Towell, 2001; Thompson et al., 1998; Wang et al., 2019; Yamini & Mandanizadeh, 2011). Studies on gender role orientation have found that undifferentiated and feminine students tend to score higher on measures of IP than androgynous and masculine students (Patzak et al., 2017; September et al., 2001). Most studies involving mixed samples of undergraduate and graduate students have found that female participants score higher on measures of IP (Brauer & Proyer, 2019; Cusack et al., 2013; Li et al., 2014), although one study involving only Black students found no gender-related differences (McClain et al., 2016).
Studies of graduate students have tended to show higher IP scores in female participants (Cohen & McConnell, 2019; Cowie et al., 2018; Jöstl et al., 2012), although this is not consistent across all investigations (Castro et al., 2010). In a study of female graduate students in STEM fields, Tao and Gloria (2019) found that gender representation was a significant factor as the perceived number of women in the field increased, participants' levels of impostorism decreased. Studies of medical students have generally demonstrated higher scores among female participants (Henning et al., 1998; Holliday et al., 2019; Villwock et al., 2016), which may be mediated by anxiety (Oriel et al., 2004).
Ethnicity/race3
Studies on the relationship between ethnicity and IP in undergraduate samples have produced mixed results. One investigation on minority students showed that Asian American students had higher IP scores than Latino and African American students, with the latter two groups not differing from one another (Cokley et al., 2013). However, other studies have found no group differences in IP scores based on ethnicity (Cokley et al., 2017, 2018).
The relationship between ethnicity and impostor feelings may depend on the impact of one or more mediators, such as self-esteem (Lige et al., 2016), racial discrimination and racial identity (Bernard et al., 2018), feelings of ethnic group membership and belonging (Peteet, Montgomery et al., 2015) or minority stress (McClain et al., 2016).
Studies focused on the relationship between ethnicity and IP in samples of graduate and professional students have produced mixed findings. Some have found no effect of ethnicity/race on IP (Cohen & McConnell, 2019; Holliday et al., 2019; Tao & Gloria, 2019) but one study of counselling students showed higher IP scores in Caucasian students compared to African American students (Castro et al., 2010). Mediators may include constructs such as worldview (Ewing et al., 1996).
Other group differences
A few studies have looked at the difference in IP scores between first generation (i.e., neither parent attended university) and continuing generation students (i.e., one or both parents attended university). In samples of undergraduates (Bernard et al., 2002), Black students (Austin et al., 2009), African American and Hispanic undergraduates (Peteet, Montgomery, et al., 2015) and graduate students (Cohen & McConnell, 2019), no differences were identified between these groups on IP scores.
A few researchers have looked at the relationship between experiences of the IP and age; most have found no relationship (Brauer & Proyer, 2017, 2019; Sonnak & Towell, 2001) but some studies have found a negative association with age for undergraduates (Thompson et al., 1998) and graduate students (Cohen & McConnell, 2019).
Several investigations have considered the connection between field of study and IP feelings. A study of female graduate students in STEM found no differences in IP scores based on field of study (Tao & Gloria, 2019); however, another study with a more diverse group of participants found that students in fields granting professional degrees (e.g., medicine, law, business) had lower IP scores than other fields (e.g., arts and humanities; Cohen & McConnell, 2019). For students in professional programmes, multiple studies have shown no effect of residency programme (Holliday et al., 2019; Oriel et al., 2004) or year of training (Holliday et al., 2019; Legassie et al., 2008; Oriel et al., 2004) on IP scores; however, one investigation did find that fourth-year medical students had higher IP levels (Villwock et al., 2016).
Mental health and well-being
Distress, anxiety and depression
A variety of studies have looked at how impostor feelings relate to different mental health factors in undergraduate students; results tend to show that participants with higher IP scores were worse off on most dimensions of mental health and well-being. Multiple studies have illustrated a negative correlation between IP scores and overall measures of well-being and a positive correlation between IP and psychological distress in both mixed (September et al., 2001; Sonnak & Towell, 2001) and all-minority samples (Bernard et al., 2017; Cokley et al., 2013; Peteet, Brown et al., 2015, Peteet, Montgomery et al., 2015). Several studies have also shown an association between higher IP scores and more specific mental health issues, including depressive symptomatology (McGregor et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2019), anxiety (Thompson et al., 1998, 2000; Wang et al., 2019), and elevations on personality disorder scales (Ross & Krukowski, 2003). Only one study did not find a connection between IP scores and mental well-being; in a study of undergraduate entrepreneurs, Sightler and Wilson (2001) found no correlation between impostor feelings and stress predispositions. In their study of ethnic minority students, Cokley et al. (2017) found a positive relationship between impostor feelings and depression and anxiety across all three groups.
Similarly, most studies of professional or graduate students have found a deleterious connection between IP scores and indicators of mental health. In a study comparing online-only to traditional graduate students, Fraenza (2016) found that IP scores were predicted by scores on a measure of anxiety. In a sample of graduate students, Cohen and McConnell (2019) found a positive correlation between pre-admission mental health issues and IP scores but also a protective effect of social support on IP. Studies of medical students and residents have determined that higher IP scores are associated with higher levels of overall distress (Henning et al., 1998), feelings of shame, embarrassment and inadequacy (Hu et al., 2019) and depressive and anxious symptoms (Oriel et al., 2004).
Negative emotional states
Several studies have demonstrated a connection between IP scores and negative emotional states4 in samples of undergraduate students. Students with higher IP scores tend to demonstrate more negative affect (McElwee & Yurak, 2007), feelings of shame (Cowman & Ferrari, 2002; McElwee & Yurak, 2010), and feelings of fear/distress and hostility/irritability (McElwee & Yurak, 2010). Undergraduates high in IP appear to demonstrate more anxiety prior to evaluations (Cozzarelli & Major, 1990; Thompson et al., 2000) and worse mood after failure (Cozzarelli & Major, 1990; Thompson et al., 2000), including feelings of humiliation and guilt (Thompson et al., 1998). Studies involving both undergraduate and graduate students have also tended to find an inverse relationship between indicators of mental health and IP scores (Cusack et al., 2013; McClain et al., 2016).
Self-concept and self-evaluations
Self-esteem
In studies of self-esteem, most investigations with undergraduate samples (Cokley et al., 2018; Cozzarelli & Major, 1990; Jöstl et al., 2012; Leary et al., 2000; Lige et al., 2016; Neureiter & Traut-Mattausch, 2016; Peteet, Brown, et al., 2015; Schubert & Bowker, 2017; Sonnak & Towell, 2001; Thompson et al., 1998, 2000) and mixed samples of graduate and undergraduate students (McElwee & Yurak, 2007; Neureiter & Traut-Mattausch, 2017) have demonstrated a negative association with higher levels of IP. One study found no relationship between IP and self-esteem (Cusack et al., 2013), while another study found a small positive correlation between IP scores and self-efficacy (Yamini & Mandanizadeh, 2011). The relationship between self-esteem and the IP may also depend on levels of self-esteem stability (Schubert & Bowker, 2017) and self-compassion (Patzak et al., 2017).
Academic self-concept
A few studies have looked at the relationship between academic self-concept and IP in undergraduates; as with self-esteem, most have identified a negative relationship (Cokley et al., 2015; Thompson et al., 1998). Studies with graduate and professional students have demonstrated negative correlations between IP and self-esteem (Oriel et al., 2004), between IP and research self-efficacy (Jöstl et al., 2012) and between IP and academic self-concept (Ewing et al., 1996).
Perfectionism
Studies investigating the links between perfectionism and the IP have tended to show a positive association between the two constructs in undergraduate (Cusack et al., 2013; Dudău, 2014; Ferrari & Thompson, 2006; Wang et al., 2019) and graduate (Cowie et al., 2018; Fraenza, 2016) samples, which may be mediated by self-esteem (Cokley et al., 2018).
Personality
Researchers have also investigated how personality structure relates to the IP in undergraduate students. In a study on interpersonal flexibility (Hayes & Davis, 1993), both male and female participants demonstrated that the relationship between interpersonal flexibility and IP was moderated by gender; there was a positive relationship between type A behaviour and IP for men but a negative relationship between those constructs for women. Studies of the five-factor model of personality have found a positive association between IP and neuroticism (Bernard et al., 2002; Ross et al., 2001) and a negative relationship with conscientiousness (Bernard et al., 2002) but no relationship with the other factors (i.e., agreeableness, openness, extraversion).
Studies investigating the relationship between IP and locus of control have demonstrated inconclusive findings. While some investigations show that undergraduates high in IP were more likely to demonstrate external locus of control (Sightler & Wilson, 2001), others have shown that participants in IP attribute failure or bad grades to internal factors (Thompson et al., 1998) or to both bad luck and low ability (Cozzarelli & Major, 1990).
Academic factors
Grade point average (GPA)
Several studies have looked at the link between IP scale scores and grade point average (GPA) but the results are unclear. Multiple studies have found no correlation for undergraduate students (Bernard et al., 2002; Cokley et al., 2015; Cozzarelli & Major, 1990; September et al., 2001; Sightler & Wilson, 2001; Thompson et al., 1998) or graduate students (Gibson-Beverly & Schwartz, 2008). Other studies have found a gender effect but the direction of the relationship varied between investigations, with some investigations showing a positive correlation for female participants only (King & Cooley, 1995), a positive correlation for both groups (Cokley et al., 2015), a negative correlation for female participants only (Blondeau & Awad, 2018) or a negative correlation for a mixed group of men and women (Lige et al., 2016).
Academic performance
Several studies have shown links between IP and academic performance and behaviour in undergraduate students. Investigations have demonstrated a connection between higher IP scores and self-handicapping (Cowman & Ferrari, 2002; McElwee & Yurak, 2007; Ross et al., 2001), as well as with fear of failure (Jöstl et al., 2012; Neureiter & Traut-Mattausch, 2016; Ross et al., 2001) and fear of success (Jöstl et al., 2012; Neureiter & Traut-Mattausch, 2016). Higher IP is also related to greater self-reported test anxiety in both undergraduates (Kumar & Jagacinski, 2006) and mixed samples of undergraduate and graduate students (Cusack et al., 2013).
Several experimental studies have been conducted with undergraduate students to demonstrate the impact of IP on laboratory simulations of tests or exams and its relation to expectations about performance. In an experimental task involving both high and low-frequency of mistake conditions, Thompson et al. (2000) found that across conditions, undergraduates with higher IP scores experienced more fear of negative evaluation, greater concern over mistakes, higher dissatisfaction with their performance, less control over their performance, lower confidence in their ability to perform well and lower estimations of success. In another experimental study of IP, failure and the self-serving bias, female undergraduate students with high IP scores were more likely to claim handicaps (e.g., headaches or fatigue) in a humiliating failure condition but not in success or face-saving failure conditions (Ferrari & Thompson, 2006). In a series of studies that tested the impacts of fictitious mid-task feedback and accountability, Badawy et al. (2018) identified that experimental conditions affected men and women with higher IP scores quite differently; whereas men demonstrated higher anxiety and lower performance in negative feedback and high accountability conditions, women were more anxious in a low accountability condition but performed better after receiving negative feedback. In a series of studies with undergraduate participants, Leary et al. (2000) showed that participants with high scores on a measure of IP expressed lower expectations of their performance, but only in public conditions. Participants were also more likely to self-denigrate when information about their performance would be available to others, suggesting important interactions between IP, performance and self-presentation.
Career concerns
Researchers on the IP have investigated how it is related to thinking and behaviours around students' future careers in undergraduate samples. One study found that higher IP was associated with lower intentions to remain in the field for male participants (Blondeau & Awad, 2018) but another study found that IP scores were not related to academic disengagement in either male or female undergraduates (Cokley et al., 2015). When looking at female graduate STEM students, Tao and Gloria (2019) found that the relationship between IP scores and persistence attitudes was fully mediated by academic self-efficacy and perceptions of the research-training environment. The results from studies by Neureiter and Traut-Mattausch have suggested that higher IP scores were associated with lower career planning (2016, 2017), less motivation to lead (2016) and lower occupational self-efficacy (2017) but higher observable career striving (2017).
In a study of PhD students (Sharma, 2018), IP scale scores were negatively correlated with career satisfaction and perceived career success.
Studies of how the IP relates to career issues among professional students have largely focused on burnout in medical sciences students, which was positively correlated with IP scores (Legassie et al., 2008; Regan et al., 2019; Villwock et al., 2016). The relationship between IP score and readiness to practise appears unclear: One study of nursing students in their final year found a positive correlation between IP and readiness to practise (Christensen et al., 2016) but another study of family medicine residents (Oriel et al., 2004) found a negative correlation.
Family
A few studies have looked at connections between family relationships and early life experiences and scores on IP measures but have tended not to focus on the same constructs. King and Cooley (1995) found a positive correlation for both male and female participants between IP score and family achievement orientation score (i.e., perceptions of family emphasis on achievement and competition). In another study, IP scores were associated with higher scores on a measure of parental overprotection but lower scores on parental care (Sonnak & Towell, 2001). In a mixed sample of graduate and undergraduate students (Li et al., 2014), IP scores were negatively correlated with maternal care but only for women; none of the parental variables (i.e., maternal/partner care, maternal/paternal overprotectiveness) were related to IP scores in men. One study of attachment and IP scores in a sample of female psychology graduate students found a positive correlation with anxious attachment but no association with avoidant attachment (Gibson-Beverly & Schwartz, 2008). Among psychology graduate students, Castro and colleagues (2010) found that parentification (i.e., a family dynamic whereby parents' unmet needs are fulfilled by their children) and IP scores were correlated.
DISCUSSION
Summary of IP findings
Results on the associations between the IP and various demographic variables were largely inconsistent, which may be due to a lack of attention and inclusion of potential mediators and moderators of the relationships. The results of studies investigating gender differences in the IP were fairly evenly split between those that found higher IP scores in female participants and those that did not find such a difference. Potential mediators of the relationship should be included in future statistical analyses to make sense of gender differences (e.g., gender role orientation, gender representation or anxiety levels).
Similarly, some studies on ethnicity/race and the IP found significant differences between groups whereas others did not; mediators of this association may include racial identity, minority stress or self-esteem. In addition, many of the investigations on ethnicity did not include a large and diverse sample and so group differences may have been difficult to detect. Much of the data on ethnicity and race has been collected in American settings and has generally focused on a Black/White division of the study population; it is unclear to what degree these results might apply to these same ethnic groups in countries other than the United States or to other ethnic groups. Many investigations in this study (n = 25 or over 40%) did not report the ethnic composition of their sample and many others who provided this information did not compare means on IP scales between ethnic groups; this represents a significant omission and presents serious limitation to the generalisability of those results.
Studies on the IP and mental health generally showed a negative relationship, whether this was operationalised as general well-being, psychological distress, depression or anxiety or negative affect states. Findings of studies with ethnic minority group members suggest that perceived discrimination or minority stress might represent important mediators to this relationship. Results related to self-concept/self-evaluation and the IP suggested an inverse relationship with self-esteem and academic self-concept for most students and a positive relationship with various aspects of perfectionism. The association between the IP and perfectionism is concerning, given the associations between perfectionism and other indicators of mental health, including suicidality (Smith et al., 2018).
Results from investigations related to IP and GPA were particularly unclear—some studies found no relationship, some found a positive relationship, and others found a negative relationship. These results suggest the possibility of group differences that might be obscured (e.g., gender differences, academic discipline) and/or the influence of mediating variables (e.g., academic self-concept). Most studies showed that the IP had a significant impact on academic behaviours; it was associated with higher test anxiety, greater engagement in self-handicapping behaviours and impression management and stronger, more negative reactions to perceived failures or mistakes. In studies of medical students/residents, there appeared to be a clear connection between reports of burnout and the IP; this is obviously a significant area for concern and intervention given that research participants are in the early stages of their careers. A few studies have considered the impact of family attitudes and behaviours but due to heterogeneity in selected constructs, no clear picture has emerged from this area.
In comparison to the review produced by Bravata et al. (2019), which included students at all levels of study, this review also noted inconsistent effects of age and gender with respect to the IP, as well as consistent negative associations between the IP and depression, anxiety and low self-esteem. Similarities in findings between these two reviews suggest that impostor feelings may show a consistent impact on mental health and well-being, regardless of level of study. This consistency suggests the need to intervene early in the academic lifespan (e.g., elementary or high school) to mitigate the impact of the IP on students' mental health. In their review of the IP in physicians and physicians-in-training, Gottlieb et al. (2020) noted that the IP was related to being female, lower self-esteem, and higher rates of burnout. It may be the case that a consistent association between the IP and gender may depend on students' field of study (e.g., medicine vs. other fields of study). Burnout has not been studied in connection with the IP outside of medicine; however, future investigations on the IP should include this construct, particularly those involving graduate students, as this is a significant issue and may be associated with detrimental impact on students' careers and mental health. Again, it is unclear to what degree pooled findings of professionals and medical students would apply to all post-secondary students; it may also be the case that unique pressures associated with medicine may affect manifestations of the IP in that population of participants.
Implications for intervention
Given the relationship between impostor feelings and mental health, self-esteem and academic functioning, this is an important issue for those who work with post-secondary students to address, both directly and as part of other interventions. IP feelings may contribute to an overall sense of not belonging on campus and an increased sense of marginalisation and isolation. Workshops directly targeting the IP could be created and tailored to the needs of specific campus groups and/or disciplines, with longitudinal follow-up to ascertain the lasting impact of such interventions. Workshops could include discussion of relevant concepts and research, contributors to impostor feelings and strategies for addressing impostor thoughts, feelings and behaviours. Specific strategies might include cognitive restructuring and defusion, mindfulness techniques, and appropriate goal-setting. Mental health professionals who work with students should routinely ask about experiences of the IP, particularly when working with members of groups who may be disproportionately vulnerable. Clinical interventions designed to target the IP should also address related constructs, including distress, depression, self-esteem, perfectionism and anxiety. University personnel creating interventions on constructs related to the IP (e.g., workshops on the subject of perfectionism, orientation programmes for incoming students or group therapy for social anxiety) might want to discuss how those constructs relate to impostor feelings.
These findings suggest important implications for policy on university and college campuses; this may include the provision of regular academic supports (e.g., counselling) as well as disciplinary and campus-wide workshops and/or orientation sessions to raise awareness and normalise the IP. Other relevant campus policies would include creation and support for formal student mentorship programmes, and establishment of an institutional culture supportive of regular professional development to ensure that professors and academic employees feel adequately trained and prepared in their roles. The hypercompetitiveness, lack of support, high stress levels and isolation endemic at many post-secondary institutions (Kadison & DiGeronimo, 2004) may represent the perfect breeding ground for impostor feelings; systematic cultural change at the institutional level may be necessary to address these issues.
Limitations of previous IP research
Geographical limitations present significant restrictions to the generalisability of findings to students around the world. This review comprised 60 investigations but the vast majority were conducted in the United States (n = 43); given the lack of global data, it is unclear at this point whether the IP might be culture-bound. Few studies in this investigation included data from multiple schools, making it impossible to compare the impact of institutional characteristics on student experiences of the IP (e.g., student population size, research-focused vs. teaching-focused); this would be a valuable area of inquiry going forward.
Many of these studies included small sample sizes and may have lacked the statistical power to detect significant associations and group differences. On multiple occasions, the data from groups that might differ significantly on experiences of the IP were combined and analysed together (e.g., level of study, gender, field of study), obscuring group differences and leading to significant concerns about generalisability. In some cases, there was a lack of diversity in study populations or important demographic variables were simply not reported (e.g., ethnicity). Other important group differences have not been addressed by researchers at all, including sexual orientation, gender orientation, disability status and other factors that might be related to a sense of isolation in academic settings.
Most studies of professional students involved only those within health professions (i.e., medicine, nursing); future investigations should also include other types of professional students outside of the health sciences (e.g., law, teaching, social work, engineering). More research on manifestations of the IP in graduate students is required, as this group might be particularly vulnerable to stress and mental health issues (El-Ghoroury et al., 2012). The applicability of these findings to primary and secondary students, or to populations outside of the academic environment, may be limited.
Although the consistent use of the Clance IP measure has been helpful in some regards, it is not clear that it would be appropriate for use with all participants due to a lack of group-specific norms. Important mediators and moderators have often not been included or addressed, which may explain why findings have been so inconsistent with regards to constructs such as gender differences in the IP or its relationship to GPA. Most research on the IP has been cross-sectional, limiting the possibility of making causal attributions and of understanding the directionality of relationships between variables.
Finally, the literature in this area is fragmented: in many cases, only one or two studies have investigated the associations between any given construct and the IP. Readers may wonder whether this area of inquiry is converging on a common set of findings about this phenomenon or whether the net result of these studies is ‘comparing apples to oranges’. Future researchers should attempt to replicate and extend important findings in this area.
Limitations of this review
A number of limitations constrain the findings from this review. Many of the studies sampled for this review have been included in other reviews (e.g., Bravata et al., 2019); however, Bravata and colleagues included studies that involved students at all levels and located 62 publications, we focused only on post-secondary samples and located 60 articles. This may suggest that some records were missed in that review. Research findings that may have been reported only in the grey literature (e.g., institutional reports, dissertations) were not included. While attempts were made to be comprehensive in our use of search engines and were guided by best practices in this area (i.e., Bramer et al., 2017), it is possible that the use of additional search engines would have uncovered additional articles. No attempt was made to include articles published in languages other than English; however, none were located during searches.
Further research
More research is required on students who are members of potentially marginalised and disenfranchised groups; this may include generational status, sexual orientation, gender identity, disability status and study status. Likewise, more research is required at the intersections of demographic group membership (e.g., race and gender, sexual orientation and gender, mental health scores and gender, study discipline and gender) and on potential mediators and moderators of these associations. Qualitative studies might help to identify important mediators and moderators affecting group differences in IP experiences. More studies are needed to examine the connections between IP and race/ethnicity, especially outside of the American context. Future investigations should examine differences in IP based on discipline of study and level of study (e.g., undergraduate vs. graduate); impostor feelings may have a disproportionate influence in some areas (e.g., STEM, professional fields) compared to others and therefore more severe repercussions for students studying in those areas.
More research is needed on how the IP relates to other kinds of mental health issues, such as eating disorders, alcohol/substance misuse, psychosis, self-harm behaviours or disorders first diagnosed in childhood (e.g., ADHD, autism). The number of students with severe mental illness, brain injuries and other disabilities who are enrolling in post-secondary institutions has increased over the last decade (Venville et al., 2016); it is important that the needs of these students be appropriately addressed so that the development of impostor feelings does not heighten pre-existing feelings of isolation and vulnerability. There is a need for both longitudinal and experimental research on IP experiences in post-secondary students to help establish causality and directionality of findings related to mental health. Researchers must attempt to identify mediators that could serve a protective factor in the relationship between IP and negative mental health outcomes (e.g., social support, family relationships, coping strategies); this would help identify appropriate targets for clinical interventions on campus. More research is required on how the IP relates to aspects of academic functioning beyond GPA (e.g., involvement in extra-curricular or co-curricular activities, undergraduate research, service learning opportunities). Longitudinal research would be required to understand how career-related decision making during school years might affect the lived repercussions of the IP beyond post-secondary settings. Although existing research with graduate or professional students has often focused on STEM or health sciences, more research is needed for students in degree programmes with less clear career trajectories (e.g., graduate students in the arts and humanities).
CONCLUSION
Since the impostor phenomenon was first identified by Clance and Imes in 1978, significant research has been conducted on experiences of impostor feelings in post-secondary populations. This review included 60 studies conducted with undergraduate, graduate and professional students on characteristics and correlates of the IP. Differences in levels of IP based on gender or ethnicity were inconsistent as was the relationship between IP and GPA; however, most studies demonstrated negative relationships between IP levels and indicators of mental health and self-esteem. Future research in this area should focus on including diverse samples of students, especially those who are potentially marginalised, and gathering data on important mediators of established relationships and identifying constructs that would ameliorate experiences of the IP. If impostor feelings can be addressed and managed earlier in a student's academic trajectory, there may be substantial improvements in reducing IP across the workforce.
FUNDING INFORMATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
Not applicable.
ETHICS STATEMENT
Not applicable.
PATIENT CONSENT
Not applicable.
Endnotes
Open Research
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
